The Stardust spacecraft incorporates innovative, state-of-the-art technologies pioneered by other recent missions with off-the-shelf spacecraft components and, in some cases, spare parts and instrumentation left over from previous missions.

The Stardust spacecraft is derived from a rectangular deep-space bus called SpaceProbe developed by Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Denver, Colo. Total weight of the spacecraft, including the sample return capsule and propellant carried onboard for trajectory adjustments, is 385 kilograms (848 pounds). The main bus is 1.7 meters (5.6 feet) high, 0.66 meter (2.16 feet) wide and 0.66 meter (2.16 feet) deep, about the size of an average office desk. Panels are made of a core of aluminum honeycomb, with outer layers of graphite fibers and polycyanate face sheets. When its two parallel solar panels are deployed in space, the spacecraft takes on the shape of a letter H.

There are three dedicated science packages on Stardust -- the two-sided dust collector, the comet and interstellar dust analyzer, and the dust flux monitor. Science data will also be obtained without dedicated hardware. The navigation camera, for example, will provide images of the comet both for targeting accuracy and scientific analysis.

Aerogel dust collectors
To collect particles without damaging them, Stardust will use an extraordinary substance called aerogel -- a silicon-based solid with a porous, sponge-like structure in which 99 percent of the volume is empty space. Originally invented in 1930 by a researcher at the College of the Pacific in Northern California, aerogel is made from fine silica mixed with a solvent. The mixture is set in molds of the desired shape and thickness, and then pressure-cooked at high temperature.

A sample of aerogel. Credit: NASA

Over the past several years, aerogel has been made and flight-qualified at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for space missions. A cube of aerogel looks like solid, pale-blue smoke. It is the lightest-weight, lowest-mass solid known, and has been found to be ideal for capturing tiny particles in space. There is extensive experience, both in laboratory and space flight experiments, in using aerogel to collect hypervelocity particles. Eight Space Shuttle flights have been equipped with aerogel collectors.

The exotic material has many unusual properties, such as uniquely low thermal and sound conductivity, in addition to its exceptional ability to capture hypervelocity dust. Aerogel was also used as a lightweight thermal insulator on Mars Pathfinder's Sojourner rover. When Stardust flies through the comet's coma, the impact velocity of particles as they are captured will be up to six times the speed of a bullet fired from a high-powered rifle. The Whipple shields can protect the spacecraft from impacts of particles the size of a pea, but larger particles present a more severe hazard.

Although the particles captured in aerogel will each be smaller than a grain of sand, high-speed capture in most substances would alter their shape and chemical composition -- or vaporize them entirely. With aerogel, however, particles are softly caught in the material and slowed to a stop. When a particle hits the aerogel, it will bury itself, creating a carrot-shaped track in the aerogel up to 200 times its own length as it slows down and comes to a stop. The aerogel made for the Stardust mission has extraordinary, water-like clarity that will allow scientists to locate a particle at the end of each track etched in the substance. Each narrow, hollow cone leading to a particle will easily be seen in the aerogel with a stereo microscope.

Particle tracks seen in aerogel after impact. Credit: NASA

The sizes of the particles collected in the aerogel are expected to range mostly from about a micron (a millionth of a meter, or 1/25,000th of an inch, or about 1/50th of the width of a human hair) to 100 microns (a tenth of a millimeter, or 1/250th of an inch, or about twice the width of a human hair). Stardust scientists anticipate that the aerogel will collect a few particles at the upper end of this size range, and many more particles in the submicron range. Most of the scientific analysis will be devoted to particles that are 15 microns (about 1/1,700th of an inch, or about one-third the width of a human hair) in size. The Stardust science team expects that the samples returned will be profoundly complex, and each particle will be probed for years in research labs.

One side of the dust collection module, called the "A side", will be used for the comet encounter, while the opposite side ("B side") will be used for interstellar collection. More than 1,000 square centimeters (160 square inches) of collection area is provided on each side. Each of Stardust's two collectors has 130 rectangular blocks of aerogel measuring 2 by 4 centimeters (0.8 by 1.6 inches), plus two slightly smaller rhomboidal blocks.

The thickness of the aerogel on the cometary particle collection side is 3 centimeters (1.2 inches), while the thickness of the aerogel on the interstellar dust particle collection side is 1 centimeter (0.4 inch). The density of the aerogel is graded -- less dense at the point of particle entry, and progressively denser deeper in the material. Each block of aerogel is held in a frame with thin aluminum sheeting.

Overall, the collection unit resembles a metal ice tray set in an oversize tennis racket. It is similar to previous systems used to collect particles in Earth orbit on SpaceHab and other Space Shuttle-borne experiments. The sample return capsule is a little less than a meter (or yard) in diameter, and opens like a clamshell to extend the dust collector into the dust stream. After collecting samples, the cell assembly will fold down for stowage into the sample return capsule.

Comet and Interstellar Dust Analyzer
The comet and interstellar dust analyzer is derived from the design of an instrument that flew on the European Space Agency's Giotto spacecraft and the Soviet Union's Vega spacecraft when they encountered Comet Halley in 1986. The instrument obtained unique data on the chemical composition of individual particulates in Halley's coma. Stardust's version of the instrument will study the chemical composition of particulates in the coma of comet Wild 2.

The purpose of the analyzer instrument is to intercept and perform instantaneous compositional analysis of dust as it is encountered by the spacecraft. Data will be transmitted to Earth as soon as a communication link is available.

The instrument is what scientists call a "time-of-flight" mass spectrometer, which separates the masses of ions by comparing differences in their flight times. When a dust particle hits the instrument's target, the impact creates ions which are extracted from the particle by an electrostatic grid. Depending on the polarity of the target, positive or negative ions can be extracted. As extracted ions move through the instrument, they are reflected and then detected. Heavier ions take more time to travel through the instrument than lighter ones, so the flight times of the ions are then used to calculate their masses. From this information, the ion's chemical identification can be made. In all, the instrument consists of a particle inlet, a target, an ion extractor, a mass spectrometer and an ion detector.

Co-investigator in charge of the comet and interstellar dust analyzer is Dr. Jochen Kissel of the Max-Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik, Garching, Germany. The instrument was developed and fabricated by von Hoerner & Sulger GmbH, Schwetzingen, Germany, under contract to the German Space Agency and the Max- Planck-Institut. Software for the instrument was developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, Finland, under subcontract to von Hoerner & Sulger.

Dust Flux Monitor
The dust flux monitor measures the size and frequency of dust particles in the comet's coma. The instrument consists of two film sensors and two vibration sensors. The film material responds to particle impacts by generating a small electrical signal when penetrated by dust particles. The mass of the particle is determined by measuring the size of the electrical signals. The number of particles is determined by counting the number of signals. By using two film sensors with different diameters and thicknesses, the instrument will provide data on what particle sizes were encountered and what the size distribution of the particles is.

The two vibration sensors are designed to provide similar data for larger particles, and are installed on the Whipple shield that protect the spacecraft's main bus. These sensors will detect the impact of large comet dust particles that penetrate the outer layers of the shield. This system, essentially a particle impact counter, will give mission engineers information about the potential dust hazard as the spacecraft flies through the coma environment. Co-investigator in charge of the dust flux monitor is Dr. Anthony Tuzzolino of the University of Chicago, where the monitor was developed.

The Stardust spacecraft. Credit: NASA

Navigation camera
Stardust's navigation camera is an amalgam of flight-ready hardware left over from other NASA solar system exploration missions. The main camera is a spare wide-angle unit left over from the two Voyager spacecraft missions launched to the outer planets in 1977. The camera uses a single clear filter, thermal housing, and spare optics and mechanisms. For Stardust, designers added a thermal radiator.

Also combined with the camera is a modernized sensor head left over from the Galileo mission to Jupiter launched in 1989. The sensor head uses the existing Galileo design updated with a 1024-by-1024-pixel array charge-coupled device (CCD) from the Cassini mission to Saturn, but has been modified to use new miniature electronics. Other components originated for NASA's Deep Space 1 program.

During distant imaging of the comet's coma, the camera will take pictures through a periscope in order to protect the camera's primary optics as the spacecraft enters the coma. In the periscope, light is reflected off mirrors made of highly polished metals designed to minimize image degradation while withstanding particle impacts. During close approach, the nucleus is tracked and several images taken with a rotating mirror that no longer views through the periscope.

Propulsion system
The Stardust spacecraft needs only a relatively modest propulsion system because it is on a low-energy trajectory for its flyby of comet Wild 2 and subsequent return to Earth, and because it was aided by a gravity-assisted boost maneuver when it flew past Earth in January 2001.

The spacecraft is equipped with two sets of thrusters that use hydrazine as a monopropellant. Eight larger thrusters, each of which puts out 4.4 newtons (1 pound) of thrust, will be used for trajectory correction maneuvers or turning the spacecraft. Eight smaller thrusters producing 0.9 newton (0.2 pound) of thrust each will be used to control the spacecraft's attitude, or orientation. The thrusters are in four clusters located on the opposite side of the spacecraft from the deployed aerogel. At launch the spacecraft carried 85 kilograms (187 pounds) of hydrazine propellant. When Stardust flies by the comet, it will be carrying about 31 kilograms (68.3 pounds) of fuel. This is well within the mission's fuel budget.

Attitude control
The attitude control system manages the spacecraft's orientation in space. Like most solar system exploration spacecraft, Stardust is three-axis stabilized, meaning that its orientation is held fixed in relation to space, as opposed to spacecraft that stabilize themselves by spinning.

Stardust determines its orientation at any given time using a star camera or one of two inertial measurement units, each of which consists of three ring-laser gyroscopes and three accelerometers. The spacecraft's orientation is changed by firing thrusters. The inertial measurement units are needed only during trajectory correction maneuvers and during the fly-through of the cometary coma when stars may be difficult to detect. Otherwise, the vehicle can be operated in a mode using only stellar guidance for spacecraft positioning. Two Sun sensors will serve as backup units, coming into play if needed to augment or replace the information provided by the rest of the attitude control system's elements.

Command and data handling
The spacecraft's computer is embedded in the spacecraft's command and data-handling subsystem, and provides computing capability for all spacecraft subsystems. At its heart is a RAD6000 processor, a radiation-hardened version of the PowerPC chip used on some models of Macintosh computers. It can be switched between clock speeds of 5, 10 or 20 MHz. The computer includes 128 megabytes of random-access memory (RAM); unlike many previous spacecraft, Stardust does not have an onboard tape recorder, but instead stores data in its RAM for transmission to Earth. The computer also has 3 megabytes of programmable memory that can store data even when the computer is powered off.

The spacecraft uses about 20 percent of the 128 megabytes of data storage for its own internal housekeeping. The rest of the memory is used to store science data and for computer programs that control science observations. Memory allocated to specific instruments includes about 75 megabytes for images taken by the navigation camera, 13 megabytes for data from the comet and interstellar dust analyzer, and 2 megabytes for data from the dust flux monitor.

Power
Two solar array panels affixed to the spacecraft were deployed shortly after launch. Together they provide 6.6 square meters (7.9 square yards) of solar collecting area using high-efficiency silicon solar cells. One 16-amp-hour nickel-hydrogen battery provides power when the solar arrays are pointed away from the Sun and during peak power operations.

Thermal control
Stardust's thermal control subsystem uses louvers to control the temperature of the inertial measurement units and the telecommunications system's solid-state power amplifiers. Thermal coatings and multi-layer insulation blankets and heaters are used to control the temperature of other parts of the spacecraft.

The Stardust spacecraft. Credit: NASA

Telecommunications
Stardust is equipped with a transponder (radio transmitter/receiver) originally developed for the Cassini mission to Saturn, as well as a 15-watt radio frequency solid-state amplifier. Data rates will range from 40 to 22,000 bits per second.

During cruise, communications are mainly conducted through the spacecraft's mediumgain antenna. Three low-gain antennas are used for initial communications near Earth and to receive commands when the spacecraft is in nearly any orientation.

A 0.6-meter-diameter (2-foot) high-gain dish antenna is used primarily for communication immediately following closest approach to the comet. Stardust will use it to transmit images of the comet nucleus, as well as data from the comet and interstellar dust analyzer and the dust flux monitor, at a high data rate to minimize the transmission time and the risk of losing data during the extended time that would be required to transmit the data through the medium-gain antenna. Most data from the spacecraft will be received through the Deep Space Network's 34-meter-diameter (112-foot) ground antennas, but 70-meter (230-foot) antennas will be used during some critical telecommunications phases, such as when Stardust transmits science data during and after the comet encounter.

Redundancy
Virtually all spacecraft components are redundant, with critical items "cross-strapped" or interconnected so that they can be switched in or out most efficiently. The battery includes an extra pair of cells. Fault protection software is designed so that the spacecraft is protected from reasonable, credible faults without unnecessarily putting the spacecraft into a safe mode due to unanticipated but probably benign glitches.

Whipple shields
The shields that will protect Stardust from the blast of cometary particles is named for American astronomer Dr. Fred L. Whipple, who in 1950 accurately predicted the "dirty snowball" model of the cometary nucleus as a mixture of dark organic material, rocky grains and water ice. Whipple came up with the idea of shielding spacecraft from highspeed collisions of the bits and pieces that are ejected from comets as they circle the Sun.

The system includes two bumpers at the front of the spacecraft -- which protect the solar panels -- and another shield protecting the main spacecraft body. Each of the shields is built around composite panels designed to disperse particles as they impact, augmented by blankets of a ceramic cloth called Nextel that further dissipate and spread particle debris.

Sample return capsule
The sample return capsule is a blunt-nosed cone with a diameter of 81 centimeters (32 inches). It has five major components: a heat shield, back shell, sample canister, parachute system and avionics. The total mass of the capsule, including the parachute system, is 45.7 kilograms (101 pounds).

A hinged clamshell mechanism opens and closes the capsule. The dust collector fits inside, extending on hinges to collect samples and retracting to fold down back inside the capsule. The capsule is encased in ablative materials to protect the samples stowed in its interior from the heat of reentry.

The heat shield is made of a graphite-epoxy composite covered with a thermal protection system. The thermal protection system is made of a phenolic-impregnated carbon ablator developed by NASA's Ames Research Center for use on high-speed reentry vehicles. The capsule's heat shield will remain attached to the capsule throughout descent and serves as a protective cover for the sample canister at touchdown.

The back-shell structure is also made of a graphite-epoxy composite covered with a thermal protection system that is made of a cork-based material called SLA 561V. The material was developed by Lockheed Martin for use on the Viking missions to Mars in the 1970s, and has been used on several space missions including NASA's Mars Pathfinder, Genesis and Mars Exploration Rover missions. The backshell structure provides the attach points for the parachute system.

The sample canister is an aluminum enclosure that holds the aerogel and the mechanism used to deploy and stow the aerogel collector during the mission. The canister is mounted on a composite equipment deck suspended between the backshell and heat shield. The parachute system incorporates a drogue and main parachute inside a single canister.

As the capsule descends toward Earth, a gravity-switch sensor and timer will trigger a pyrotechnic gas cartridge that will pressurize a mortar tube and expel the drogue chute. The drogue chute will be deployed to provide stability to the capsule when it is at an altitude of approximately 30 kilometers (100,000 feet) moving at a speed of about mach 1.4. Based on information from timer and backup pressure transducers, a small pyrotechnic device will cut the drogue chute from the capsule at an altitude of approximately 3 kilometers (10,000 feet). As the drogue chute moves away, it will extract the 8.2-meter-diameter (27-foot) main chute from the canister. Upon touchdown, cutters will fire to cut the main chute cables so that winds do not drag the capsule across the terrain.

The capsule carries a UHF radio locator beacon to be used in conjunction with locator equipment on the recovery helicopters. The beacon will be turned on at main parachute deployment and will remain on until turned off by recovery personnel. The beacon is powered by redundant sets of lithium sulfur dioxide batteries, which have long shelf life and tolerance to wide temperature extremes, and are safe to handle. The capsule carries sufficient battery capacity to operate the UHF beacon for at least 40 hours.